1. socializing with other children, particularly younger children
2. early adoption
3. enriched environment (ie. toys, books, stimulation)
4. low caretaker to child ratio
5. low turnover rate in staff
6. well-trained or sensitive staff (got a point if said something that was getting at either of these)
7. Giving fundamental care like nutrition or clothing only received .5 point

1. Overextension: the most common answer that got full credit was referring to all men as "daddy" or referring to all 4-legged animals as "doggy" something like that
2. Underextension: referring to only your pet as "kitty" but to no other cats, or an example in the same caliber
3. Mutual Exclusivity Principle: Assigning a new word to an unfamiliar object. For example, a child already knows the word "dog" and knows what a dog is. When the child is confronted with lets say a dog and a giraffe, and they aren’t familiar with what a giraffe is, then they hear the word "giraffe" they will apply that new word to the unfamiliar animal, which is the giraffe. A lot of people only gave the definition for this problem, and if that was the case (and no example), they received half credit.
4. Telegraphic speech: is one or two word utterances by a toddler to communicate. For example "Want bottle" for "I want my bottle" A lot of people confused this with facial expressions and pointing to communicate.

3. What is theory of mind? Describe a study showing that preschoolers have a limited theory of mind. 5 points

1. Theory of mind is being aware that others can hold thoughts, perceptions, and feelings different from your own. A lot of people confused this with egocentrism.
2. There were a number of studies including: the juicebox example, the "mean monkey" with the stickers example, the candy/pencil box example. A lot of people once again confused theory of mind experiments with egocentrism experiments, and gave the 3 mountain task example, which did not receive any credit.
3. The generic methods: a child is shown a box and is asked what they think is in the box. Low and behold, something else is in the box other than what they expected. They are then asked what a friend would think was in the box.
1. The "mean monkey" example is that a child is asked to pick their favorite sticker, but is told that the "mean monkey" will always pick their favorite sticker.
4. Results: a young child will say that a friend will think the surprise item is in the box
1. "mean monkey" example: the child will always pick their favorite sticker and the "mean monkey" will take that sticker
5. Implication: Children don’t understand that others don’t have the same knowledge they have. Or, the child cannot understand false belief (that a belief can be counter to reality, that someone can beleive soemthing that isn't true).

a. Watching a television show

Behavior:

Explanation:

1. watching a tv show
1. behavior
1. think that others know the same thing they do when watching the show. For example, talk about the show to someone as if the other person saw the same exact show
2. children will talk to the TV
3. won’t distinguish what is fantasy on TV from reality (ie. think monsters are real)
2. explanation
1. need to explain egocentrism (just saying the term only got _ point)
2. explain theory of mind
3. explain appearance-reality principle
2. 3-mountain task
1. behavior:
1. think friend sees exactly what they see (almost everyone got this)
2. explanation
1. explain egocentrism
3. conservation (volume) task
1. behavior
1. think the amount of juice is different (just to say child will react with sadness or happiness was not enough to receive full credit)
2. explanation
1. centration: only focus on one dimension at a time
2. lack of mental operations (reversibility, compensation)
3. focus on perception rather than conceptualize what is going on

5. What is horizontal decalage? Name two (2) of the developmental frameworks and describe how they explain horizontal decalage. 7 points

1. Horizontal Decalage: unevenness in performance for what seems like logically identical tasks
2. Framework: biological/maturation or brain
1. Explanation
1. Brain has separate modules that develop at different rates, and the more developed part of the brain leads to more advance tasks that correspond with that part of the brain
3. Framework: learning/environmental or social learning or cultural/contextual. Or info processing
1. Explanation
1. Cognitive development is due to knowledge through experience
2. More experience ‡ better performance
3. Different cultures ‡ different frequencies of exposure and level of participation with children may differ in certain tasks. For example, South American children that work as street vendors have "advanced" mathematics skills for their age.

6. List a strong proponent of each of the following statements. You can either list the name of a theory of language acquisition or a specific psychologist. You may use the same name or theory more than once if it applies. 5 points (1 pt each)
1. Language is learned like any other cognitive skill- it is not special. Learning/Environment, Skinner, Bandura
2. Association and imitation play central roles in language learning.

Learning/Environment, Skinner, Bandura

3. Language acquisition can’t be explained by simple learning mechanisms alone.

Nativist, Pinker, Chomsky, Piaget (1/2 pt for Interactionist)

4. Cognitive capacities and the social environment are intertwined in language learning.

Interactionist, Vygotsky, Cultural Context, Piaget

5. Humans are biologically predisposed to learn language, but not other cognitive skills.

Genetically Determined: (2 points)

• Studies indicate that temperament is stable over long periods of time. For example, the study that tracks temperament from infancy to adulthood.
• Differences in temperament at a very early age before learning from the environment can have an effect.
• Kinship studies with separated identical twins, or comparing identical to fraternal twins.
• Bringing up monkey film. Bold monkey moms tended to have bold monkey offspring.

Learning/Environment: (2 points)

• Not all aspects of temperament are stable- some are situational.
• Cultural differences- activity level of American versus Japanese children.
• Bringing up monkey film. When a timid monkey baby was raised by a bold monkey mom, the baby monkey started showing signs of behaving like a bold monkey.

a. Drive reduction theory: (1 point)

b. Evidence against: (2 points)

Harlow monkey studies. Baby monkeys presented with two surrogate "mother" monkeys. One was made of wire mesh and included an attached bottle for feeding, the other was covered in terry cloth, but had no feeding bottle. Baby monkeys spent the majority of the time with the soft comforting mother, and visited the wire mom only for feeding. When the baby monkey was scared, it would immediately seek comfort with the soft mom. This study suggests that nourishment does not provide the basis for attachment, instead comfort plays an important role.

a. Biological

Organization of the brain- lateralized vs specialized.

Hormone levels. Rat studies show that high testosterone levels are associated with aggression and high activity levels. Also, studies of women with naturally high testosterone levels.

b. Socialization by parents

c. Socialization by peers

d. Cognitive development

Categorization according to gender- affiliating with groups of your own gender.

Brain or hormone evidence was NOT accepted here.

a. Defining characteristics ( 1 point)

b. Implications of language and cognitive functioning (2 points)

May suggest modularity in the brain.

Dissociation between language and other cognitive skills.

1/2 point for only defining and not giving an example.

a. Instrumental (1 point)

Any example that involves aggression that is aimed at getting something.

E.g., hitting a boy to get his toy car.

b. Hostile (1 point)

c. Relational (1 point)

Steps (List by number) (1.5 points total)

Anxious-avoidant attached response (1.5 points total)

1/2 point for each of the following

1. Child indifferent to mom’s departure, or may become upset.