ࡱ> Root Entry FҡH@Data WordDocumentdObjectPool58dH19dH  !"#$%&'()*+,-./0123456789:;<=>?@ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ[\]^_`abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz{|}~1TablerSummaryInformation(DocumentSummaryInformation8$ CompObjIX      !"#$%&'()*+,-./0123456789:;<=>?@ABCDFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ[\]^_`abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz{|}~K     I !"#$%&'()*+,-./0123456789:;w=>?@ABCDEFGHJNLM<OPQRSTUVWXYZ[\]^_`abcxyz{|}~Root Entry F(=H@Data WordDocumentbObjectPool58dH19dHm is a surface tension correction and depends on the surface area of the nucleus. For a sphere, this varies with A2/3. This term is shape-dependent though. The next term is a correction for the mutual electrostatic repulsion among the Z protons. At this stage, we have the binding energy of a classical charged liquid drop which would be optimal at each A if there were no charge. The fourth term is entirely quantum mechanical in nature and accounts for the presence of two classes of particles in the nucleus, the proton and the neutron, each of which obey the Pauli exclusion principle. Any excess of one type over another would be higher in energy than the most symmetric composition and so this term is referred to as the symmetry correction. Everything else being equal (which is not the case), the most bound nuclei would all be compositionally symmetric; that is, N would equal Z as close as possible. For low mass numbers, the symmetry term dominates stability. For heavier nuclei, growing electrostatic repulsion energy gives the coulomb correction more and more influence, and a significant excess of neutrons is evident. The liquid drop model parameters c could be derived from the nuclear force. Unlike atomic structure though, the theories of the nuclear force are extremely intricate and wont be addressed here. The alternative, and a very practical one, is to find the best set of cs for reproducing the observed energies. This is what was done originally. The comparison, as a binding energy per particle, is shown below for stable nuclei.  Figure 2. Smooth curve is the average binding energy per particle, EB/A, for stable nuclei using csurf=15.67, cvol=19.00, ccoul=0.7205 and csym=20.0. All units are MeV. The data points are measured values. Among the predictions that emerge from the liquid drop model are energies available for radioactive decay towards stability: by beta-decay, alpha-decay and fission. Any species with a mass number greater than ~140 is energetically unstable with respect to alpha-decay. The probability of (-decay becomes influential though most often when the energy released is appreciable. The relationship between (-half-lives and tunneling rates is one of the triumphs of the new sciences. The picture plays a critical role in deciding whether heavier and heavier elements are even the slightest bit stable. 2.2 CLUSTER DECAY Almost exactly one century after the discovery and understanding of alpha radioactivity, the emission of clusters from heavy nuclei was found. In 1984, two groups measured the emission from 223Ra of 14C clusters. The discovery was confirmed by other groups. Currently, so-called cluster radioactivity is known for seventeen nuclides and involves, besides the carbon, 24Ne, 28Mg, 32Si, 20O, and 23F. They are very rare events, but fit well within current understanding of nuclear transformations. 2.3 FISSION 2.1 Understanding fission In 1938, Hahn, Meitner, and Strassman discovered fission. Within a year, Meitner and Frisch recognized the analogy between nuclear fission and the splitting of a liquid drop. Their model was subsequently developed more rigorously by Bohr and Wheeler in the next year. In perhaps the simplest picture for fission [3], we can quantify the energy change when a nucleus that is initially spherical, starts to distort slightly on the way to splitting into two fission fragments. In the liquid drop model, two of the terms are shape dependent. These are the surface energy and the coulomb energy. The surface energy term is csurfA2/3. The coulomb energy is ccoulZ2/A1/3. If the sphere distorts into an ellipsoid of revolution so that the major axis is 1+( times the original spherical diameter and the minor axis is reduced to 1/(1+()1/2 of the spherical diameter (the choices correspond to the elliptical shape keeping the volume constant),  Figure 3. The very initial distortion of nuclear shape on the way from a spherical geometry to a split system, but first passing through the slight ellipsoidal deformation characterized here. The full sequence is shown schematically in the next figure. then the following energy changes occur. The surface area is increased so that the surface energy is  EMBED Equation.3  times the starting surface energy. The coulomb energy, because the average distance between charges actually decreases upon this distortion of the shape, drops to  EMBED Equation.3  times the coulomb energy of the spherical shape. The nucleus is unstable towards a spontaneous distortion (leading to fission) if the drop in coulomb energy more than balances the increase in surface energy. That is, when  EMBED Equation.3  which reduces to  EMBED Equation.3  The proximity of a nucleus Z2/A to the above critical value is a measure of its fissility. 2.2 Barriers As an initially spherical nucleus distorts its shape on the way towards splitting into fragments, there is a barrier that must be superceded. It is due to the combination of surface tension and electrostatic effects as noted above. The liquid drop model easily can be seen to indicate that as electrostatic repulsion from greater charge in heavier elements can overcome the surface tension restoring the compact shape.  Figure 4. For stable or near stable nuclei, experimental barriers towards fission have been determined and are displayed in the diagram below. The barrier towards fission in a charged liquid drop essentially disappears in the early transfermium region implying nuclei will not be stable against instantaneous, spontaneous fission.  Figure 5. Experimental barriers towards fission. 2.3 Superheavy Elements wont exist In 1939, Meitner and Frisch used the liquid drop model to demonstrate that spontaneous fission should limit the existence of heavy elements to about Z=100. to our present knowledge, it is unlikely that elements beyond 126 will exist. Hofmann, 2002. 2.4 The Nuclear Shell Model The liquid drop model allows calculation of the total energy or mass (E=mc2) for any nuclide. Comparison with experiment, however, shows that despite the superficial agreement, clear systematic deviations emerge. These indicate extra stability (lower total energy or mass) for Z=28, 50, 82 and N=28, 50, 82, and 126 as displayed in the next figure.  Figure 6. Differences between the total energy predicted by the liquid drop model and those determined from measured atomic masses. The discord is not random, but rather indicative of another phenomenon, shells. The energy released in radioactive transformations show similar trends arising from corrections to bulk or macroscopic descriptions of nuclear stability using the liquid drop model. The nuclear shell model was introduced in 1949 by Gppert-Mayer, Jensen, Suess and Haxel to explain the special, magic properties associated with neutron and proton numbers of 2, 8, 20, 28, 50, 82, and 126, the latter just for neutrons. The liquid drop was replaced by a phenomenological self-consistent nuclear potential well in which single particle wave functions could be calculated.  Figure 7. The energy needed to remove the least bound neutron from various nuclei relative to the prediction of that energy via the liquid drop model. Generating single particle states for neutrons and protons within a macroscopic potential well allows the determination of microscopic corrections to the total energy and reveals the origin and significance of shell effects. A particularly simple illustration is the single particle states in a three-dimensional (symmetric) harmonic oscillator shown on the left below. The appearance of the closed shells as gaps appear at particle numbers (Z or N) 2, 8, and 20. Instead, if a square potential well is used, but with rounded edges, the energy levels are modified as shown in the center diagram. If a spin-orbit interaction is introduced, the levels split further but continue to display the shell partitioning at 2, 8 and 20 as indicated on the right.  Figure 8. Single particle levels for neutrons or protons in three-dimensional wells. On the left is a symmetric harmonic oscillator. In the center is a 3D square well with rounded edges and on the right is the same, but including spin-orbit coupling. 2.6 Superheavy Elements will exist Orbital energies for protons and neutrons within the nuclear potential can be calculated leading to a macroscopic-microscopic description of nuclear structure. The macroscopic part is the liquid drop model including variations of shape. These, in turn, give rise to the potential energy wells within which the individual particles move and whose energies aggregate into a shell-like structure providing microscopic corrections to the bulk, liquid drop properties. Nuclear shells match the observed magic numbers for ground states of the known nuclides. For heavier systems, shape-dependent energies predict non-spherical ground states and shape isomers suggesting the probability that stable superheavy nuclei would exist around certain neutron and proton numbers. Here we have an idea of how the single particle energies in the shell model vary when the shape of the macroscopic nucleus distorts ellipsoidally. Zero distortion is at the horizontal central axis where the spherical closed shells 8, 20 etc are apparent. Note that shell closures change with shape and that nuclear energies and other properties adjust accordingly. When total energies are calculated in the framework of the shell model, there are gains in stability that can balance the instability contained in just the liquid drop contribution.  Figure 9. Microscopic part of the macroscopic-microscopic energy showing how the single particle states vary with the shape distortions about the spherical result in the center. 2.6.1 Reasonable predictions The inclusion of shell corrections to the liquid drop model drops the disagreement in total energy (and other properties) very significantly. Compare Figure 6, where the discord at Z=82 or N=126 was H" 10 MeV, vs H" 1 MeV below in Figure 10. Most current models are  good to 0.25 MeV on the average. A comparison of theory with experiment for the very heaviest of nuclei is illustrated here. Note the left scale is much smaller than the previous comparison (Figure 6) of the plain liquid drop model predictions vs experiment.   Figure 10. Deviation between total binding energies determined from experimental atomic masses and those calculated in recent macroscopic-microscopic theory. Searching for the heaviest elements is synonymous with finding the most stable composition; the longest half-life. These are characteristics that can be predicted from the shell model as well. Not surprisingly, stability is the indicative factor. Recent calculations show how the shells in the heavy element region are evolving for higher proton and neutron numbers. The first of the next two diagrams shows theoretical proton states as a function of deformation in the region of Z=124. It is observed that for spherical shapes, Z=114 appears as a closed shell and might be followed by a somewhat less forceful closing at Z=124 and subsequently a significant gap at Z=164. Should the ground state shapes have lower energy when deformed, the locations of shells might be different (or even vanish, although that has not emerged as a result of calculations). The very next diagram is a similar display for the neutron states with evidence of closed (spherical) shells at N=164, 184, and 228 (besides other, weaker possibilities).  Figure 11. Theoretical predictions of the macroscopic-microscopic theory for the energy states of a proton in heavy nuclei as a function of deformation from a spherical geometry.  Figure 12. Theoretical predictions of the macroscopic-microscopic theory for the energy states of a neutron in heavy nuclei as a function of deformation from a spherical geometry. Theory can also be used with a good deal of confidence to predict half-lives towards radioactive decay. In the case of superheavy nuclei, this means beta-decay, alpha-decay, and spontaneous fission. Predictions at the leading edge of new element research are shown below. Observe the relatively long half-lives in the vicinity of the closed neutron shell N=182. Also noteworthy is the prediction that half-lives might exceed one year in certain cases.  Figure 13. Half-lives of heavy nuclei near the superheavy region as predicted by recent calculations. The entire collection of concepts that have gone into the liquid drop model with shell corrections is very nicely summarized in the topological diagram below. It represents a display of proton number Z vs neutron number N showing a peninsula of stability that extends beyond the actinides. The peninsula is surrounded by a sea of instability. Beyond that sea is the island of stability on which the superheavies would be found. The magic neutron and proton numbers associated with closed, stable shells appear as lines of latitude and longitude on this surface map. Well beyond the superheavy island, on the horizon, is the hypothetical location of the next possible small collection of nuclei, perhaps the superduper island near element 164.  Figure 14. The peninsula of stability surrounded by the sea of instability with the offshore magic island of stability for superheavy elements. The possible superduperheavies are suggested on the horizon. 3. GETTING THEREG 3.1 Reactions 3.1.1 Neutron capture Almost immediately following the discovery of the neutron, experiments showed that neutron capture by nuclei could lead to heavier elements. Fermi was the pioneer in this area. When he irradiated uranium and found production of elements that did not fit into that region of the periodic table, he announced the discovery of the first transuranics. Ironically, he had unknowningly discovered fission, not transuranics. The capture of neutrons leads to heavier nuclei but in competition with competing transformations. Fission, of course, yields lighter products. Negative beta decay following capture leads to a different element which can then also capture additional neutrons. Even today, this leads to the production of macroscopic amounts of transuranics in power reactors (e.g. 30 kg 96Cm in a year). The more neutrons you add, the further Z2/A is from instantaneous fissioning. But as you add subsequent neutrons, the half-lives of the products grow shorter and shorter (moving away from stability). Beta-decay brings you back towards stability by increasing Z. A unique way in which this was partially overcome was through the (parasitic) use of a hydrogen bomb detonation. The very first thermonuclear device, called Mike, exploded in the South Pacific Enewitok Atoll in 1952.  Figure 15. The first thermonuclear detonation. Eniwetok Atoll in the South Pacific Ocean. Debris gathered from the radioactive cloud and later on neighboring atolls was analyzed for heavy elements. Elements 99 and 100 were discovered here first. Analysis indicated that neutron intensities corresponding to several moles were generated in just nanoseconds leading to multiple neutron captures by uranium up to 255U and subsequently by the chain of decay products as well. The sequence is represented below in which the horizontal connections to the right indicate neutron capture and the diagonal corrections up and to the left correspond to (-- decay.  Figure 16. Rapid, successive neutron captures by uranium builds up to heavier elements, stopping eventually at 255Fm. 3.1.2 Heavy Ions alphas (get you up to 100Fm). To go beyond, you need heavier ions. heavy ions (stable + stable) reactors intense neutron radiation of targets gave macroscopic quantities of transuranic radionuclides which could subsequently serve as target material heavy ions (radioactive targets + stable) 101Md was the first element to be assayed one atom at a time heavy ions (radioactive targets + radioactive beams) 3.2 Detection  Figure 17. The separator for reaction products of heavy-ion fusion reactions. 4. FUTURE VOYAGES Venturing into the sea of instability in the search for heavier and heavier elements requires continued technological developments. Among these is the use of radioactive beams. Since stability for the heavier elements swings more and more to being rich in neutrons, the bombarding particles themselves must have relatively large numbers of neutrons. What is done is to use an intitial nuclear reaction system to generate reaction products, some of which will have a large fraction of neutrons. These are separated in flight and injected into a tandem accelerator to bring about the second set of reactions, the heavy ion fusions. Several research groups around the world are both collaborating and competing in this race. All are pretty confident that a number of new elements will be found over the next decade or so. Additional benefits will accrue as beams with greater intensity and detectors with better efficiencies evolve. 5. NAMING THE ELEMENTS Symbols and names for elements 104-109 that were formally adopted in the United States a decade ago are given in the table below in the second column. AUS(1992)IUPAC(1994)IUPAC(1995)IUPAC(1997)104RfrutherfordiumDbdubniumDbdubniumRfrutherfordium105HahahniumJljoliotiumJljoliotiumDbdubmium106SgseaborgiumRfrutherfordiumSgseaborgiumSgseaborgium107NsnielsbohriumBhbohriumNsnielsbohriumBhbohrium108HshassiumHnhahniumHnhahniumHshassium109MtmeitneriumMtmeitneriumMtmeitneriumMtmeitnerium The complete Periodic Table including these choices was published in official form by the American Physical Society in August 1994. John Wiley & Sons (Chichester, UK) eight-volume "Encyclopedia of Inorganic Chemistry", edited by R. Bruce King and an international Advisory Board, used these names in their Periodic Table inside the cover of each volume. Publishers of textbooks and charts are using the above names and symbols. The Council of Scientific Society Presidents, in 1995, endorsed the use of seaborgium for element 106. But there were territorial disputes about the claims of discovery. This was to be resolved by a committee. Transfermium Working Group The Transfermium Working Group had been established by the International Union of Pure and Applied Physics (IUPAP) to analyze priority of discovery of elements. Only after objections from the chemistry community were two members from IUPAC added to augment the original seven physicists. Only one of the IUPAP appointees, and none of the IUPAC members, worked in the area of nuclear physics and nuclear chemistry (and not in the area of synthesis of heavy elements at that). The charge to the Transfermium Working Group in trying to determine priority of discovery of new elements was (i) to consult with experts and (ii) to consult with the discovery contestants in an iterative fashion. Neither was done. As far as has been ascertained, no neutral experts in the field of heavy element science were consulted other than the participants themselves (Berkeley, Dubna, and Mainz). IUPAC not only appointed only non-experts to the TWG, but never conferred in any way with the sole IUPAC Commission closely related to the question at hand the Commission on Radiochemistry and Nuclear Techniques. IUPAC Rarely is there mention of the earlier collaboration between IUPAC and IUPAP, launched in 1974 and aimed at resolving the element 104/105 discovery dispute. An international ad hoc committee had been appointed to consider the priority of discovery of these two elements. The Committee was to consist of neutral experts including three persons each from the United States and from Russia and three, including the chair, from other countries. The Committee carried on some informal activities but never met as a body, nor completed its work, nor issued a report. The Chair requested that members prepare a history of the effort and perspective views by both the Russians and the Americans. In 1987, after it became apparent that this Committee probably would never function, the Committee members from the United States submitted their historical perspective to the journal Radiochimica Acta which accepted the manuscript in revised form [ref]. The editors of that journal made an offer to the scientists at Dubna to contribute a companion paper on the same subject, but those editors "note regrettably" that the offer was never accepted. In response to a request to the heavy-element research groups, the above six transfermium names had been recommended to IUPAC by the nuclear researchers at Berkeley in 1994. They are identical to the 1994 set recommended to IUPAC by German researchers in their response to IUPAC. The Russians were silent on the last three and differed on the first three. The use of rutherfordium for element 104 had been employed in much of the world for more than two decades already. Despite the directive that "names approved by IUPAC are based on considerations of practicality and prevailing usage", IUPAC subsequently recommended instead that the 104-9 sequence be named as shown in the fourth and fifth columns of the above table. Some rebuttals Frequently it is heard that the squabble is merely chauvinism, a simplistic accusation that is not corroborated by the facts. Among actinide and transactinide elements named after persons are: (by the U.S.) curium (French-Polish), einsteinium (German-Swiss), fermium (Italian), mendelevium (Russian), rutherfordium (New Zealander), and hahnium (German); (by the Russians) joliotium (French); and (by the Germans) nielsbohrium (Danish). Precedents, seaborgium, and other transfermium names By both inventing and abandoning precedents, IUPAC found itself in a quagmire. Most contentious with IUPAC was the idea of naming an element after a living person as with 106 a concept that seemed to distress only IUPAC nomenclaturists out of the vast multitude of science organizations facing similar, if not even more complex, nomenclature issues. The IUPAC misgiving was further encumbered by a subsidiary demand to show whether or not a living scientist's contribution(s) have "met the test of time". In fact, in a 1995 letter to the Executive Committee of IUPAC in response to the recommendation on names for transfermium elements, the letter's authors expressed their concern that "the historic rights of discoverers have not been honored. We suggest that the following principles must be established at the highest level of IUPAC before the naming process can be completed. 1. IUPAC should confirm the historic right of the discoverers of a new element to name the element they discovered. If IUPAC refuses to approve it, the discoverers should be asked to propose a new name. 2. There should be no new retroactive rule that elements cannot be named after living persons. However, we recommend that the names be those of eminent scientists." The letter is signed by nuclear scientists V. Goldanski (Russian Academy), D. Hoffman (Transfermium Institute, US) and J. V. Kratz (Institute for Nuclear Chemistry, Mainz). The Committee on Nomenclature of the American Chemical Society, which acts for the Society's Council in consideration of action on nomenclature documents and proposals unanimously passed and forwarded two resolutions. "The ACS Committee on Nomenclature approves the recommendation of the Nomenclature Committee of the ACS Division of Inorganic Chemistry and the ACS Division of Nuclear Chemistry and Technology to adopt the name Seaborgium and the symbol Sg for the element with atomic number 106." "The ACS Committee on Nomenclature reaffirms the resolution unanimously passed at the 1993 annual meeting, November 8, 1993, which adopted the names and symbols recommended by the Nomenclature Committee of the ACS Division of Inorganic Chemistry and the ACS Division of Nuclear Chemistry and Technology, namely: 104, Rutherfordium, Rf; 105, Hahnium, Ha; 107, Nielsbohrium, Ns; 108, Hassium, Hs; and 109, Meitnerium, Mt; and strongly objects to the IUPAC proposed names, especially to the reassignment of the names rutherfordium and hahnium, which would cause considerable confusion with prevailing usage." IUPAC ignored the uproar, not recognizing it had severely damaged its credibility as evident in the analysis that follows. IUPAC solicited names suggested for transfermium elements from the three laboratories in contention. In the case of element 106, both the United States and German groups agreed on seaborgium. The Russian investigators made no suggestion on element 106. Nevertheless, IUPAC ironically took upon itself the task of overruling the unopposed name, something for which there is no precedent in the history of chemistry. Likewise, the names for elements 107-109 were also absolutely uncontested, yet IUPAC changed two of those three as well. Element 106 was named seaborgium in the United States by its acknowledged discoverers. In finding this suggestion unacceptable, IUPAC's response should have been "IUPAC does not accept the name seaborgium for element 106." Or even more logically, "IUPAC cannot accept the name seaborgium for element 106 at this time." That this appropriate alternative was not returned to the discoverers was incomprehensible. Moreover, nowhere was IUPAC given the authority to name an element on its own volition! We can also examine the history of IUPAC's involvement in the naming of elements. In essence, roughly eighty-five elements have been discovered in the last two-and-a-half centuries. In the twentieth century, during IUPAC's existence, approximately thirty of those eighty-five elements were found. IUPAC's first foray into element names seems to have been in 1950 when the name columbium was rejected in favor of niobium. That ruling has been mostly (but not nearly entirely) accommodated by the user community. Metallurgists still use columbium for element 41. There have been subsequent minor skirmishes over spelling of element names (sulfur, cesium) and over the aluminum/aluminium variants. But the issue of tungsten vs wolfram has never been resolved by IUPAC. For elements 93 through 100, interestingly enough, there does not seem to be any active approval of names by IUPAC. The history of the Periodic Table has never had a name used regularly for one element confiscated and applied to another element. Yet IUPAC renounced the quarter-century old name of rutherfordium for 104 and of hahnium for 105 and, dictating an unreviewed precedent, re-assigned them to elements 106 and 108. IUPAC's contributions to science benefit from its eliminating ambiguity. By its action here, (e.g. rutherfordium is element 104 and 106) IUPAC brought about the antithesis of its very own raison d'tre. IUPAC, in accepting a defective TWG report (see later) and totally ignoring documented challenges to it, institutionalized a very awkward precedent. As noted below, the TWG re-examined Russian laboratory books to try to document priority claims. Even if one were to find (they didn't, but claimed what they found would suffice anyhow) relevant raw data raw data! whose significance had been unknown (or misinterpreted), IUPAC implies this is cause enough to revise history. A hypothetical case in point: the 1938 discovery of fission is credited, as it should be, to Hahn, Meitner, and Strassman. IUPAC's logic would reassign this discovery to Fermi, whose data on (barium) radioactivity produced from neutron bombardment of uranium were presented by Fermi to the world in 1934 as evidence (sic) instead for the production of the first transuranium elements. IUPAC vowed that naming an element after a living person was a precedent it wished to avoid establishing. That stance was hotly contested. IUPACs decision was somewhat moot owing to several observations. IUPAC argued that the Berkeley group is erroneous in its claims that naming elements after living persons has been done before. IUPAC said it could find no evidence that this has ever been done formally, citing Berkeley's use of einsteinium as a case in point. "Formally" is problematic for the first hundred or so elements. IUPAC has only formulated its absolute authority on this question in the past several years. IUPAC notes that Einstein passed away in April of 1955 and the Berkeley einsteinium publication was submitted, formally, in June 1955 as indicated on the publication itself. Berkeley has repeatedly pointed out to IUPAC its notebooks with the name einsteinium predating April, but which were classified at the time. Pertinent to naming the next element, fermium, S. Hofmann, in his recent book On Beyond Uranium, states Fermi died November 28, 1954; he was living when element 100 was named after him, although the name was not then made public. IUPAC, which apparently saw nothing wrong in the TWG rummaging through laboratory notebooks retroactively in Dubna to look for unpublished data as evidence bearing on element 104, in this case invoked rigid "formality" as a cause for exclusion of a name. On this point, the sine qua non is perhaps Emil le Coq de Boisbaudron, who in 1875 discovered eka-aluminum, element 31, and named it after himself by using the latinization of his name "le Coq": hence gallium. This etymology is well known. One particularly citeworthy source for the "le Coq = gallus ( gallium" etymology is the Oxford English Dictionary (q. v.). Gallium arguably was not named as a derivative of the Latin name for France as perpetuated by much of the literature. IUPAC and Transfermium Names Nobelium, whose discovery is demonstrably the most convoluted and mis-understood of all the transfermiums, had its priority of discovery reassigned by the TWG without objection and, indeed, with agreement of all involved. Here was the strongest case for IUPAC to re-address a name given on weak evidence by the first claimants. Two of the three contesting laboratories recommended so. Yet incomprehensively IUPAC did nothing here. Element 104 rutherfordium in the United States and Germany, kurchatovium in Russia had been assigned split priority of discovery by the TWG. The conclusion by the TWG regarding element 104 was one of the most disputed in their monumental effort, a challenge that is very, very compelling and yet which is dismissed without substantive comment by either the TWG or IUPAC. If no recommendation had been made by IUPAC, element 104 would have been known both as rutherfordium and kurchatovium basically identical to the situation tolerated between tungsten and wolfram. In the case of disputed element 105 hahnium in the U.S. and Germany, nielsbohrium for a while in Russia IUPAC chose the name joliotium. No claimant of element 105 suggested the name joliotium for it. The name is meant to honor Frederic Joliot-Curie who shared the Nobel Prize with Irene Joliot-Curie. They worked jointly, as equals, and they shared subsequent honors. They shared their names too: there is no Joliot, only Joliot-Curie. And Irene contributed half of the effort from which their notoriety justly arises. Why is the memory of Irene Joliot-Curie being doubly slighted by IUPAC's attempting to name an element after only Frederic and with the "Curie" extension omitted from his legal and recognized* name? This indignity cannot have been IUPAC's intention but is indicative again of how little thought they gave to the implications of their unauthorized choices. Element 107 was named nielsbohrium in honor of a giant among physicists, Niels Bohr. However, IUPAC recommended, in contrast to the wish of the uncontested discoverers and without the courtesy of asking them, that the name be truncated to bohrium "to be consistent with other elements named after persons." Element 108 was named hassium by its undisputed discoverers in Germany. The name hassium was also endorsed by the United States and uncontested by Russia. By what rational line of reasoning dud IUPAC reject this uncontested name as they had done? The reasoning was that the name was obscure. Element 108 is named after the Latin Hassia for what is the state of Hesse, where the laboratory is located. Its names etymology is as obscure as that for lutetium, rhenium, hafnium, ytterbium and ruthenium. At the 1995 IUPAC meeting in Guildford, there was an ad hoc meeting hosted by the Union's president, Professor K. Zamaraev. Representatives from Russia, the United States and Germany were invited to try to resolve the very awkward situation IUPAC found itself in. It should be noted that the Russian representative at the ad hoc meeting came from the nuclear field. But the U.S. and German representatives invited by Professor Kamaraev did not, despite there being present at Guildford nuclear chemists from both countries and members of the Commission on Radiochemistry and Nuclear Techniques. It was reported that when the U.S. representative put the U.S./German slate of names on the table for consideration, the Russian delegation threatened to withdraw its support for seaborgium (which support was irrelevant and unnecessary) and to walk out of the meeting. Second, the representative from Germany indicated that his constituency was willing to be flexible about its endorsement of what was previously identical to the U.S. approved names. The ultimate recommendations emerging from this ad hoc meeting included seeking public comment. But it also generated yet a third slate of shown in the sixth and seventh columns of the above table. Moreover, rutherfordium was put in reserve for future assignment; ... and nobelium (element 102) was to become flerovium. Subsequent to the meeting, it was learned that the German representative was unauthorized to abandon the original German/U.S. list and did so either through a misunderstanding or of his own volition. Some Errors by the TWG 101Md Mendelevium was discovered in 1955 by a group at Berkeley using unambiguous chemical means including ion-exchange chromatography. The latter technique can be extremely specific in distinguishing one element from another, especially when the lanthanide group or actinide group elements are being resolved. Yet the TWG re-assigned priority of discovery to a 1958 research group, also at Berkeley, apparently because of TWG's lack of appreciation of this classical and well-understood chemical technique and its powerful part in radiochemical separations of elements. The 1958 research group never claimed any portion of the right to discovery of mendelevium. 104Ku/Rf The Russians announced discovery of element 104, kurchatovium, in 1964. By analysis of how production yields varied with bombarding energy, they concluded that 260Ku had been produced. Because the difference between the production of 260Ku and 259Ku corresponds to several MeV, the "260" mass number estimate should not be an erroneous assignment since bombardment energies can be measured to a precision of a fraction of an MeV.. The measured half-life was reported to be 0.3 0.1 sec. The Russian researchers also stated emphatically and unequivocally that the half-life of their radioactivity was not 3.7 sec. Half-life is a very distinguishable characteristic of radioactive decay and even when statistics are not plentiful, can be measured with a good deal of precision and accuracy. For identification purposes, the mass number and half-life of a radioisotope might be considered as corresponding to the molecular weight and melting point of a pure compound. Berkeley's claim to discovery of element 104 in 1969 involved production of 259Rf with a half-life of 3.0 sec. Today, more than a quarter of a century later, it is known that the half-lives of the mass 259 and 260 isotopes of element 104 are 3.1 sec and 0.020 sec, respectively. The Russians reported 0.3 sec for their element 104. An error of such magnitude for the Russian claim on 260Ku is analogous to having a chemical compound's molecular weight and melting point each wrongly analyzed by about a factor of 10. These are significant inaccuracies and indicate the Russian results prior to and contemporary with those of Berkeley are unarguably inconclusive. In 1971, approximately two years after the Berkeley measurements proved solid and the Russian figures were shown to be unsubstantiatable, the Russians began to alter their claims. Mention is made now of a 4.5 sec 259Ku isotope and of shorter-lived 260Ku, its half-life reduced to 0.1 sec for awhile, then 0.08 sec and then 0.028 sec, each half-life being inexplicably outside the reported range of uncertainty associated with its previous determination. During the TWG's non-iterative investigation, Dubna maneuvered into position with the TWG to have the influential last say of any of the three contesting laboratories being visited. The Russians were able to get the TWG to re-open old data books and re-analyze measurements taken twenty years earlier in an effort to find evidence of discovery of element 104. In defending the TWG's ultimate decision to re-synthesize a 3-second 259Ku radioisotope from the original 0.3 sec 260Ku data, thus warranting the controversial sharing of the priority of discovery with Berkeley, Aaldert Wapstra, senior spokesman for the TWG, enlightens us to the TWGs thinking by stating "The analysis showed, anyhow, that assignment to 259104 could not be excluded." In the context of how the TWG had been manipulated, such a succinctly barren manifesto shows why many believe that the TWG recommendations were corrupted by an all-consuming, damn-the-torpedoes, desire to compromise. The situation has since settled down and changed enormously for the better. In their review The Discovery of the Heaviest Elements, S. Hofmann and G. Mnzenberg, co-investigators on elements 107-112, note There was a great deal of discontent about the way names were eventually assigned to elements 102 to 109, and IUPAC was determined not to let this occur again with the latest elements. The aim was therefore to make the process of naming an element as open and as free from objection as possible. A IUPAC/IUPAP Joint Working Party (JWP) composed of independent experts was set up in January 1999 to judge the validity and relative value of claims for priority for elements 110 to 112All contending insititutes will be sent reprints at the time of submission with the understanding that each might choose to submit its own comments for adjoining publication. The procedure allows for the highest possible transparency and includes possibilities to reach an agreement in controversial cases before any names are proposed and start to circulate. The careful protocol referred to has been expertly shepparded by Dr. John Corish of IUPAC. Also included was an intermediate step asking each institute to review a preliminary JWP draft for technical accuracy. The author of this chapter on the heavy elements was a prime critic of both the TWG and the earlier IUPAC management. He has been the chair of the JWP and is pleased to note that as we go to press, the proposed name for element 110 is darmstadtium after the German city where the discovery was done and that element 111 is likely to be addressed in the very near future.  Figure 18. The shell partitioned display format (spdf) of the periodic table through (hypothetical) noble solid element Z=1138 shown as a filled square in the lower right. 6. REFERENCES 1. P. J. Karol, The Mendeleev-Seaborg Periodic Table: Through Z = 1138 and Beyond, J. Chem. Educ. 79 60-63, 2002. 2. R. Rhodes, The Making of the Atomic Bomb, Touchstone, 1995. 3. R. B. Leachman, Nuclear Fission, Sci. Amer., 49-59, Aug. 1965. D. C. Hoffman, A. Ghiorso, and G. T. Seaborg, The Transuranium People, Imperial College, London, 2000. S. Hofmann, On Beyond Uranium: Journey to the end of the Periodic Table, Taylor and Francis, London, 2002. S. Hofmann and G. Mnzenberg, The Discovery of the Heaviest Elements, Rev. Mod. Phys. 72 733-767, 2000. E. K. Hyde, D. C. Hoffman, and O. L. Keller, Jr., A History and Analysis of the Discovery of Elements 104 and 105, Radiochem. Acta, 42 57-102, 1987. P. J. Karol, H. Nakahara, B. W. Petley, and E. Vogt, On the Discovery of the Elements 110-112, Pure Appl. Chem. 73 959-967, 2001. W. H. Koppenol, Naming of New Elements (IUPAC Recommendations 2002), Pure Appl. Chem. 74 787-791, 2002. M. Schdel, ed., The Chemistry of Superheavy Elements, Kluwer Academic, Dordrecht, 2003. G. T. Seaborg, ed., Transuranium Elements: Products of Modern Alchemy, Dowden, Hutchinson and Ross, Inc., Stroudsburg, PA, 1978. G. T. Seaborg and W. D. 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KarolTraulNormal  Paul Karolo75lMicrosoft Word 9.0f@@G@&&9@n H(Ϛ ՜.+,D՜.+,\ hp  'Carnegie MellonJO &On Naming the Transfermium Elements* TitleD  8@ _PID_HLINKS'A\ :PICTS:YearDisc.PICT$0)(:PICTS:EB/A.Both2.PICT$a@:Ellipsoid.PICT${\$:PICTS:BarrierPotl.PICT$m& :PICTS:Barrier.Exp.PICT$;( :PICTS:ShellCorr.PICT$uH, :PICTS:MagicNo.PICT$/ :PICTS:Shells.Light.PICT0046$<z6 :PICTS:ShellsDeformed.PICT$dR::PICTS:ShellCorrZHeavy.PICT$dF::PICTS:ShellCorrNHeavy.PICT$}a?:PICTS:Z124ProtonsDef.PICT${lY@:PICTS:N164Deform.PICT$/ B:PICTS:Smol.Half-lives.PICT$=7F:PICTS:Peninsula.PICT$8hL:PICTS:mike.jpg$UO:PICTS:Mike.PICT$IBQ:PICTS:SHIP.PICT$ /:PICTS:PeriodicTable1168.PICT${\ :PICTS:B FMicrosoft Word DocumentNB6WWord.Document.8arrierPotl.PICT$dRB*:PICTS:ShellCorrZHeavy.PICT$dFF*:PICTS:ShellCorrNHeavy.PICT$|V<.:PICTS:gallium.PICT$  e@  e@Z  e@2  e@A>  e@2c  e@surf   e@c  e@coul  e@50 Oh+'0 ( D P \ ht|'&On Naming the Transfermium Elements* t ng the composite system is left heated, with internal energy (see Figure 4). In nuclear systems, this implies cooling by evaporating particles, usually neutrons, or by emitting alpha particles or by undergoing fission. Alpha particle bombardments with cyclotrons and later linear accelerators were used to great success for many years [9], but only increase Z by 2 and do not swing the product to greater neutron excess as required. Still heavier ions became available for bombardment, but energies must be restricted to those that do not dump too much heat into the fused system, yet are high enough to provide reasonable yields. Over the years, the availability of long-lived radioactive actinides grew. Among the most useful of these is 340,000-year 248Cm and 9-month 254Es in microgram amounts. The main difficulty is that the experimental and theoretical production rates of new elements drops very rapidly for the various reasonable combinations of projectile and target. Even for mendelevium, the yield was only ten millionths of what the yield for berkelium had been [7]. The most current results involved producing one product nucleus every several days. At an award ceremony within the American Chemical Society, one of the German researchers joked that they were forced to hurry up their experiments because every month, a new theoretical yield prediction came out that was lower than the previous one. But not only did very low production rates present a challenge, so did unequivocal detection of a sought nucleuss^y`ymyryz{{{{|+.Ybw)5EF|ab KN ʞ؞Ɵɟ$uCJEHOJQJCJH*OJQJ 0JOJQJ5CJOJQJ jCJOJQJ6CJOJQJ CJOJQJ>*CJOJQJKz| |pqABψЈ dЈ xyޣߣ{|̦ͦƮǮ֮׮KLүӯ:;|y56#Уңӣ?@mn  ӯԯpq@AJK*+()^_/ xyޣߣ{|̦ͦƮǮ֮׮K 0^`0 l]^ld 1)*/0;<CDƮǮ֮+;=\yGŰBܱ:mʲ4׳سٳ  jCJOJQJU0J5CJOJQJOJQJ56CJOJQJ5CJOJQJjGCJOJQJU6CJOJQJCJEHOJQJ CJOJQJBKLүӯ:;)*qrճֳ׳;)*qrճֳ׳bc?B-/-.$$%%%F**,,,,.N/V/X/112,44l788888$a$`s. A particularly ingenious example of modern detection methods is the one shown below. It is a velocity filter system with the acronym  SHIP used in Germany. The beam energy and and identity in combination with the target identity implies a momentum of the fusion product that is sufficiently different from that of the projectile and other reaction products that magnetic and electric fields can be used as filters to allow selective transmission of nuclei of interest. Redundancy of deflections corrects for any secondary scatterings of the much more plentiful combinations. Finally, the product is stopped in a position-sensitive detector that records a chain of sequential alpha decay energies which must originate at precisely the same location in the detector. ' 0P/ =! "i # $ %|HH(FG(HH(d ? jbjbb}}lhhx4@;@;@;@;T;vk<L4=4=4=4=4=4=4=*M,M,M,M,M,M,M,fl nXM4=4=4=4=4=XM &On Naming the Transfermium Elements* TitleD  8@ _PID_HLINKS'A\ :PICTS:YearDisc.PICT$0)(:PICTS:EB/A.Both2.PICT$a@:Ellipsoid.PICT${\$:PICTS:BarrierPotl.PICT$m& :PICTS:Barrier.Exp.PICT$;( :PICTS:ShellCorr.PICT$uH, :PICTS:MagicNo.PICT$/ :PICTS:Shells.Light.PICT0046$<z6 :PICTS:ShellsDeforR!W).]62<DLpEQϥbG.ez>2R&ehϦ]np1tKWVM©)CX= .4a,_²|yC('aQaQ6<H_K'IENDB`BDd~1X &&d . C @A(:PICTS:gallium.PICTbbBgFvT< qf n^Ji3)3LbBgFvT< qPNG  IHDR~gAMAܲPmed.PICT$dR::PICTS:ShellCorrZHeavy.PICT$dF::PICTS:ShellCorrNHeavy.PICT$}a?:PICTS:Z124ProtonsDef.PICT${lY@:PICTS:N164Deform.PICT$/ B:PICTS:Smol.Half-lives.PICT$=7F:PICTS:Peninsula.PICT$8hL:PICTS:mike.jpg$UO:PICTS:Mike.PICT$IBQ:PICTS:SHIP.PICT$ /:PICTS:PeriodicTable1168.PICT${\ :PICTS:B FMicrosoft Word DocumentNB6WWord.Document.8arrierPotl.PICT$dRB*:PICTS:ShellCorrZHeavy.PICT$dFF*:PICTS:ShellCorrNHeavy.PICT$|V<.:PICTS:gallium.PICT$  e@  e@Z  e@2  e@A>  e@2c  e@surf   e@c  e@coul  e@50 Oh+'0 ( D P \ ht|'&On Naming the Transfermium Elements* t ? jbjbd}}lhhx4>>>>TD?8o@L@@@@@@@PPPPPPP,(p HrQ*@@@@@QI@@l@,III@@@PI&&&&@PIINN @L6( >hENND8o8oNrIrNI The Heavy Elements Paul J Karol Department of Chemistry, Carnegie Mellon University, Pittsburgh, PA 15213, USA 1. INTRODUCTION With the twenty-first century in its toddler years, extension of the Periodic Table into the next row, the superactinides is already foreseeable. The history of discoveries of previous elements, the understanding of their structure and production restrictions and of their spontaneous decay will be briefly reviewed with a view towards exploring the likelihood of yet further' 0P/ =! "i # $ %|HH(FG(HH(d  Starting with a spherical nucleus (no deformation) on the left, there can be a coulomb barrier towards distorting the shape as indicated. Once over this fission barrier, the distortion can continue releasing the available fission energy. The reverse direction, fusing two heavy ions together to make a composite system faces a fusion barrier.spontaneous forbe stable against instantaneous break-upis noticeableSimilarly, t and also required for neutron or proton removal eachsystematic deviationsaccording to the latter just for neutrons. In the model, tcumulative shape (as in atomic structure as well) Yet, it s a long way off. \##$$%l%%)))B*D*F*H*j*r*z**0++++@,,,,,.../N/T// 1112D4V4444444v55677R8v8z888899<<<<^=5CJOJQJjCJOJQJU j*0J j*0JOJQJOJQJ6CJOJQJjCJOJQJUjpCJOJQJU65CJOJQJ CJOJQJ CJOJQJ@' 0P/ =! "i # $ %|HH(FG(HH(d merged [4]all sometimes. The single particle shell corrections now indicate the possibilitystabilizing Belowviewlls 8, 20 etc. are apparent. . Nliquid drop model when shell corrections are accommodated [4,5] and higher [4] [5] [5] designed over the years by the Berkeley research groups 4. P. Mller and J. R. Nix, Nuclear Properties for Astrophysical and Radioactive-Ion-Beam Applications, At. Nucl. Data Tables 66 131-343, 1997. 5. R. Smolanczuk, Properties of the hypothetical spherical superheavy nuclei, Phys. Rev. C56 812-824, 1997. ' 0P/ =! "i # $ %|HH(FG(HH(d  [6] s a long way off. In his 2002 book On Beyond Uranium, author S. Hofmann stated [7] 3. GETTING THERE by Chadwicl in 1932 in a typical power reactor of course, then discoveries. All of this is conveyed, in a sense, when one looks at the rate of discovery of new elements during the scientific era commencing about two-and-a-half centuries ago. On the average, a new element has been found every two-and-a-half years, not necessarily sequentially. If this striking trend were to continue, there would be 150 known elements by the end of the 21st century, well into the next row of the periodic table [1]. Is this thinkable?  Figure 1. The nearly constant rate of discovery (straight line) of new elements over the past two-and-a-half centuries. 2. NUCLEAR STRUCTURE A very brief history of nuclear science would start with the discovery of radioactivity, understanding its nature, and the use of radioactive decay to explore nuclear structure and nuclear reactions. Among the names associated with these pioneering studies are Niepce, Becquerel, Rutherford, and the Curies. There are numerous other contributors as well. By the first quarter of the twentieth century, Rutherfords nuclear model of the atom and Bohrs planetary model of the atom made their impact. The development of radiation detectors, mass spectrometers, and cyclotrons spurred the new science forward at a great pace. Richard Rhodes Pulitzer Prizing winning book The Making of the Atomic Bomb has a superb review of these stories [2]. 2.1 Liquid Drop Model Based initially on the trends in measured masses available in the 1930s, Bethe, Gamow, and von Weizscker developed the charged liquid drop model. They calculated the equivalent of the chemical heat of formation of nuclei: the total binding energy EB (required to disassemble an atom of atomic number Z and mass number A=Z+N into its Z hydrogen atoms and N neutrons). The expression in its least cumbersome form is EB = cvolA csurfA2/3 ccoulZ2A-1/3 csym(N-Z)2A-1 The first term on the right dominates the binding in a liquid drop with short-range attractions and is proportional to the volume, which, in turn, is proportional to A. The second ter rapidly Fissionability increases accordingly making it difficult to proceed to higher Z s.xploded in the South Pacific Eniwe [7] [8] [8]to in excess. What is done is to use an ininvariably radioactive, on a selected target, the heavy ion fusion 5.1 Competitions A history of heavy element discoveries is not complete without recalling the soap opera that emerged from competitive scientists and intrusive committees. The disputes over who discovered what and who had the  right to name them is an incred     ible long-term drama. and Germany /GER(1994this Conference s co-organizer, ,used Trouble loomed. 5.2 an early(95.2.1 IUPAPwas on which this author served, partly as chairthird column5.2.2 and by-lawsNevertheless, IUPAC frequently defended its posit0F4=4=<,0F0F0F4=4=4=*M0F&&&&4=*M0F0FJJp<LP 6( @;AxJJDvkvkJ(o0F(oJ0F The Heavy Elements Paul J Karol Department of Chemistry, Carnegie Mellon University, Pittsburgh, PA 15213, USA 1. INTRODUCTION With the twenty-first century in its toddler years, extension of the Periodic Table into the next row, the superactinides is already foreseeable. The history of discoveries of previous elements, the understanding of their structure and production restrictions and of their spontaneous decay will be briefly reviewed with a view towards exploring the likelihood of yet further discoveries. All of this is conveyed, in a sense, when one looks at the rate of discovery of new elements during the scientific era commencing about two-and-a-half centuries ago. On the average, a new element has been found every two-and-a-half years, not necessarily sequentially. If this striking trend were to continue, there would be 150 known elements by the end of the 21st century, well into the next row of the periodic table [1]. Is this thinkable?  Figure 1. The nearly constant rate of discovery (straight line) of new elements over the past two-and-a-half centuries. 2. NUCLEAR STRUCTURE A very brief history of nuclear science would start with the discovery of radioactivity, understanding its nature, and the use of radioactive decay to explore nuclear structure and nuclear reactions. Among the names associated with these pioneering studies are Niepce, Becquerel, Rutherford, and the Curies. There are numerous other contributors as well. By the first quarter of the twentieth century, Rutherfords nuclear model of the atom and Bohrs planetary model of the atom made their impact. The development of radiation detectors, mass spectrometers, and cyclotrons spurred the new science forward at a great pace. Richard Rhodes Pulitzer Prizing winning book The Making of the Atomic Bomb has a superb review of these stories [2]. 2.1 Liquid Drop Model Based initially on the trends in measured masses available in the 1930s, Bethe, Gamow, and von Weizscker developed the charged liquid drop model. They calculated the equivalent of the chemical heat of formation of nuclei: the total binding energy EB (required to disassemble an atom of atomic number Z and mass number A=Z+N into its Z hydrogen atoms and N neutrons). The expression in its least cumbersome form is EB = cvolA csurfA2/3 ccoulZ2A-1/3 csym(N-Z)2A-1 The first term on the right dominates the binding in a liquid drop with short-range attractions and is proportional to the volume, which, in turn, is proportional to A. The second terion by insisting that the perceived trouble was all due to nationalistic pride, that wasical Society, which acts for thatsunvettedfosteredfission product was [7]withhypocritically 6. A. Lukasiak and A. Sobiczewski, Estimation of Half-lives of Far-superheavy nuclei with Z approximately 154-164, Acta Phys. Pol. B6 147-165, 1975. 7. 8. 9. ( IUPAC = International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry: IUPAP = International Union of Pure and Applied Physics 899<<<<`=@@C2F4FGGHHHXJFKKZ `b' 0P/ =! "i # $ %|HH(FG(HH(d   Figure 17. Etymology of the element name  gallium from the Oxford English Dictionary. ^=`=.@6@:@T@@CCCDHHHVJpJ8K>KDKFKHKZKKKKSSTTUUPVbV `b6CJOJQJCJH*OJQJCJH*OJQJ5CJOJQJ jyCJOJQJ5CJOJQJ CJOJQJ CJOJQJ"tor. ' 0P/ =! "i # $ %|HH(FG(HH(d 15. rapidly Fissionability increases accordingly making it difficult to proceed to higher Z s.xploded in the South Pacific Eniwe [7] [8] [8]to in excess. What is done is to use an ininvariably radioactive, on a selected target, the heavy ion fusion 5.1      Competitions A history of heavy element discoveries is not complete without recalling the soap opera that emerged from competitive scientists and intrusive committees. The disputes over who discovered what and who had the  right to name them is an incredible long-term drama. and Germany /GER(1994this Conference s co-organizer, ,used Trouble loomed. 5.2 an early(95.2.1 IUPAPwas on which this author served, partly as chairthird column5.2.2 and by-lawsNevertheless, IUPAC frequently defended its position by insisting that the perceived trouble was all due to nationalistic pride, that wasical Society, which acts for thatsunvettedfosteredfission product was [7]withhypocritically 6. A. Lukasiak and A. Sobiczewski, Estimation of Half-lives of Far-superheavy nuclei with Z approximately 154-164, Acta Phys. Pol. B6 147-165, 1975. 7. 8. 9. ( IUPAC = International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry: IUPAP = International Union of Pure and Applied Physics 899<<<<`=@@C2F4FGGHHHXJFKKZ `' 0P/ =! "i # $ %|HH(FG(HH(d   Figure 17. Etymology of the element name  gallium from the Oxford English Dictionary. ^=`=.@6@:@T@@CCCDHHHVJpJ8K>KDKFKHKZKKKKSSTTUUPVbV `6CJOJQJCJH*OJQJCJH*OJQJ5CJOJQJ jyCJOJQJ5CJOJQJ CJOJQJ CJOJQJ! [8 [9 Seaborg][10 SHIP [10115.2.3 AC s disputetenuouselement s ,ental effort, a challenge that proves [12] 7. 10. ' 0P/ =! "i # $ %|HH(FG(HH(d therfordium and kurchatovium  , or much like the J/( particle in physicsIUPACat rational line of reasoning di s for example, orornames fourth columnprevious 5.2.4 SeriousFirst, : different [13] Ku/Rf is next for consideration. cision of a fraction of an MeV.third [11], such a IUPAC was shaken by outrage within the global nuclear community. Leadership changes proved constructive. [10]s 110 to 112& All contending ins shephereport Recently, IUPAC has devised a rational scheme for naming new elements [14]. It is consistent with existing by-laws and underwent extensive public review before going to press. [15] The foment has subsided, perhaps permanently. But the drive to push the limits of the Periodic Table is as fervent as ever. [1]8 9. 10.11.1213. 14. by Chadwickics. Ironically, he had unknow Figure 16. Rapid, successive neutron captures by uranium builds up to heavier elements, stopping eventually at 255Fm. Figure 18 effort, a challenge that proveFigure 19 ' 0P/ =! "i # $ %|HH(FG(HH(d Instead of neutron capture, one could also use heavy-ion capture, except a heavy ion has to have enough bombardment energy to overcome the fusion barrier with a target meani